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in mind and tries to
translate carefully. But it becomes very difficult for a translator to decode Translation is the
communication of the meaning of a
source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language
text.Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of
written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.
Translators always risk
inappropriate spill-over of
source-language idiom and usage into the
target-language translation. On the other hand, spill- overs have imported
useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed,
translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they
have translated.
Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in
the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with
dedicated schools and professional associations.
Because of the laboriousness
of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to
mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted
translation).The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation
services and has facilitated language localization.
Translation studies deal with the
systematic study of the theory, the description and the application of
translation.
The word translation derives from
the Latin translation (which itself comes from trans- and fero, the supine form of which is latum, together meaning "to carry across" or
"to bring across"). The modern Romance languages use words for translation derived from
that source or from the alternative Latin traduco ("to lead
across"). The Slavic and Germanic languages
(except for the Dutch "vertaling",
"literally" a "re-language-ing") likewise use calques of these Latin sources.
The Ancient Greek term for translation, μετάφρασις (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"),
has supplied English with metaphrase (a "literal," or
"word-for-word," translation) — as contrasted with paraphrase ("a saying in other words", from παράφρασις, paraphrasis).Metaphrase corresponds, in
one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and paraphrase, to "dynamic equivalence."
Strictly speaking, the
concept of metaphrase — of "word-for-word translation" — is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language
often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may
often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless,
"metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as idealconcepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of
possible approaches to translation. “At the very beginning, the translator keeps both the
[s]ource [l]anguage... and [t]arget [l]anguage... the whole text... literally;
therefore he takes the help of his own view and endeavours to translate
accordingly.”
A secular icon for the art of translation is the Rosetta Stone. This trilingual (hieroglyphic-Egyptian, demotic-Egyptian, ancient-Greek)stele became the
translator's key to decryption of Egyptian hieroglyphs by Thomas Young, Jean-François Champollion and others.
In the United States of America
Discussions
of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation)
and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by
English poet and translator John Dryden (1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious
blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language,
"counterparts," or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language:
good approach
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